The Primary School as a Playful Space

x In this paper, we present an informing background of theory and international research into the transition from preschool to school, before discussing the existing transition-to-school situation in Germany and Scotland. We are convinced that an understanding of the role of play is essential to inform developmentally and pedagogically appropriate practices for children in transition to school. Recognising attributes of play such as creativity and imagination means creating transition spaces in which children can exercise agency, feel good during the transition and move from familiar early childhood contexts to the newness of school. International professional conversations reflecting on these atributes in practice will complete this paper.

x This article examines how play influences educational processes in primary school students. Conventional playful learning concepts often distort the phenomenological essence of play in an effort to enhance children’s learning outcomes. The primary focus of this paper is to argue that genuine play occurs when children are not constrained by external objectives, and instead engage in activities that emerge organically. This article presents critical theoretical perspectives that address the institutional forces at work within schools, which prioritize structured learning environments over spaces that are conducive to playful self-development. The role of an artist-in-residence-programme is emphasized because it is characterized by an open structure for exploring the school environment and the analysis outlines how this framework promotes learning objectives that encourage students to engage with and reflect upon their lived experiences rather than reflecting their learning achievements of the school curriculum.

x In this paper, we examine the concept of play from a historical perspective. Many past authors have highlighted the diverse potentials of this multifaceted activity, which is often — though not exclusively — associated with childhood. We discuss the contributions of Carolina and Rosa Agazzi, Giuseppina Pizzigoni, Etore Guatelli, Mario Lodi, and Gianfranco Zavalloni, who explored play through various lenses, offering a range of interpretations and applications within their own educational and pedagogical approaches. Our analysis also incorporates insights from professionals focused on children and design, specifically Bruno Munari and Riccardo Dalisi, to uncover additional dimensions of play. Finally, we examine contemporary educational contexts, including selected teaching practices and teacher training initiatives, to connect historical insights with current perspectives on the role of play.

x One of the most interesting and at the same time intrusive modalities of the pedagogical valorisation of play in the modern age has been found in the forms of “didactic games”. Intriguing because it is in this direction that the research and production of play materials has developed with the aim of strengthening the link between play and learning: the ancient Latin expression Ludendo docēre, dating back to Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (1st century AD), is transformed into Ludendo discĕre, shifting the centrality of the function of teaching to the more natural one of learning. This is disturbing because the expansion of the market for the production of educational games over a period of about two centuries has led to a de facto colonisation of the pedagogy of games, which raises a prejudicial question: on the basis of what assumptions can a game be defined as “educational” and, by extension, which games are “educational”? A game that is labelled as “educational” or “didactic” would then be considered to have some kind of “added value”, making it suitable to be used in schools. But is this really the case? How many of us would include educational games in our ludo biography, among the games that have contributed the most to our education? It is likely that there is an unresolvable conflict of interest in the relationship between school and play.

x Situations in which pupils play freely can promote interaction about their lifeworld. According to Flitner (2009), social issues can be better addressed in play situations and pupils can open up their own peer-cultural and meaningful aspects in play than in school lessons (Flitner, 2009; Heimlich, 2023). Games are didactically convincing because cognitive aspects are promoted in a motivating way. Nevertheless, it should be noted that less importance is attached to free play in particular than to guided play, although it is favoured by the children (Ceglowski, 1997; Jäger, 2011). This article looks at free play and asks how lifeworld experiences are used for interaction. To this end, it examines a play situation during break time in which pupils are engaged in construction play. Video material from my doctoral project is used to present initial findings from an inclusive primary school, analysed using the documentary method (Martens & Asbrand, 2022; Bohnsack, 2021). In this way, verbal and non-verbal interactions as well as spatial and material aspects are included in the analysis. The situation shows that there is a connection between lifeworld references and non-verbal behaviour during play. Despite the different orientations of the players, there is agreement about their social roles. Lifeworld experiences and references are used as a connecting element in play.

x In free play setings, children from four to eight years of age acquire, in addition to concrete situational play competencies, a series of generic skills that can be summarized under the keyword of life skills. Three concepts are central to the theoretical framing of the concept of these life skills: the OECD Learning Framework 2030 (2018), the United Nations’ perspective (2006), and the World Health Organization’s understanding of life skills (1999). The skills as described by UNICEF, UNESCO and the WHO can be further broken down into concrete skills: problem solving, critical thinking, effective communication, decision making, creative thinking, interpersonal relationships, building self-awareness, empathy and coping with stress and emotions (United Nations, 2006, p. 1). The PALS project explores the life skills that children acquire in different play settings on various levels. Free play is understood as an act of intrinsic motivation of a voluntary nature with the actual play process itself and the positive emotions that are connected. The project incorporated the development of various elements for teacher training in co-creation with universities in Serbia, the Republic of North Macedonia, and Switzerland, producing manuals for students, lecturers and teachers, and creating a series of teaching videos and training modules for the University. An accompanying study investigated the underlying attitudes and learning processes at the level of participating students, lecturers and teachers (and, to a certain extent, pupils and parents) both quantitatively and qualitatively. This article will provide an insight into this international collaborative project and its various constituent elements. Significant issues regarding the different understandings of play and its practice will be highlighted and discussed.

x Transformative education requires the participation of teachers with social-emotional skills. Examining the central role of Social Emotional Learning (SEL) and the educational value of cooperative games (following the holistic approach of the Find-horn Foundation), the present contribution explores the emotions experienced and described by 157 second-year students from the Primary Education Master’s programme at the Free University of Bozen (Italy). The students engaged in one or more sessions of cooperative games, involving body and non-verbal communication. The main categories relating to SEL which emerged from the Grounded Theory (GT ) data analysis will be presented, namely: “experiencing relational well-being”, “discovering self-other”, “opening up to diversity”, and “growing professionally”. Finally, the educational relevance of cooperative games within a holistic approach to promoting social-emotional skills in initial teacher training will be discussed.

x Play is crucial for child development, serving as an essential activity that promotes exploration and learning. The pedagogy of risk emphasizes spontaneous play in natural environments, where the educator acts as a guide and companion, with children and the environment as the real protagonists of the experience. Advocates of play highlight its autotelic value - an activity pursued for its own sake – free from moral and social constraints. Play is viewed as an innate biological need, vital for the development of children’s psychophysical, social, and cognitive skills. The concept of risky play links play with the aspect of physical risk, which is an indispensable element that offers children unique opportunities to develop motor, social, emotional and cognitive skills. However, diminishing opportunities for outdoor play and increasing safety concerns have limited these experiences. It is essential to differentiate between risk and danger, enabling children to engage in controlled challenges to foster their self-esteem and cultivate resilience over the long term. The Norwegian educational context exemplifies a positive approach by acknowledging children’s right to actively participate in decisions that affect them, thus giving them a voice and encouraging risky play in early childhood settings. Ethical considerations surrounding risky play underscore the need to balance the promotion of enriching educational experiences with the prevention of harm. An inclusive approach is crucial to ensure that all children have equal access to play opportunities which are both stimulating and safe. Recognizing play as a fundamental right is the first step in providing a childhood which is rich in meaningful and formative experiences.

x Play is crucial for child development, serving as an essential activity that promotes exploration and learning. The pedagogy of risk emphasizes spontaneous play in natural environments, where the educator acts as a guide and companion, with children and the environment as the real protagonists of the experience. Advocates of play highlight its autotelic value - an activity pursued for its own sake – free from moral and social constraints. Play is viewed as an innate biological need, vital for the development of children’s psychophysical, social, and cognitive skills. The concept of risky play links play with the aspect of physical risk, which is an indispensable element that offers children unique opportunities to develop motor, social, emotional and cognitive skills. However, diminishing opportunities for outdoor play and increasing safety concerns have limited these experiences. It is essential to differentiate between risk and danger, enabling children to engage in controlled challenges to foster their self-esteem and cultivate resilience over the long term. The Norwegian educational context exemplifies a positive approach by acknowledging children’s right to actively participate in decisions that affect them, thus giving them a voice and encouraging risky play in early childhood settings. Ethical considerations surrounding risky play underscore the need to balance the promotion of enriching educational experiences with the prevention of harm. An inclusive approach is crucial to ensure that all children have equal access to play opportunities which are both stimulating and safe. Recognizing play as a fundamental right is the first step in providing a childhood which is rich in meaningful and formative experiences.

x The concept of the game is laden with ambiguity and multiple facets: For a planet with a hundred faces such as the game, it would be risky, to say the least, to attempt the cropping of an entire image, of a single frame. Such an interpretative approach would open the doors to superficial and undue generalizations (Frabboni et al., 1989,p. 9). According to historian Johan Huizinga, play in human history responds to two fundamental principles: freedom, whereby a game is first and foremost a free act. Commanded play is no longer play. At most, it can be the compulsory reproduction of a game (Huizinga, 1938/2002, p. 12) and the principle of pleasure attached to it. Based on these two principles, a third follows: play is autotelic, whereby the end of the play is within the play itself. But if for some, especially in the relatively distant past, games were not created to educate, but only to amuse, to engender sociality and participation, for scholars of child psychology - and not only - such as Piaget, Winnicot, Bruner, Mead, Vygotskij, Montessori, to name a few, it plays a fundamental process in that it is the means for the intellectual, affective and relational strengthening of the child. If one were to define play, one could say that it is a phenomenon rooted in the biological and psychic life of every human being, since it is both an amusement in itself and serious work. To use Maria Montessori’s words, it could be defined as “serious fun”, a fundamental activity for children (not an ordinary pastime that serves to learn, have fun, explore, relate, get rid of nervous tension, anxieties and emotions such as anger, fear, and so on . Play is not ordinary or real life. It is a departure from that, to enter a temporary sphere with a purpose all its own (Huizinga, 1938/2002, p. 11); it is not, therefore, difficult to imagine the enormous potential of play where the child experiences a realistic but protected dimension in which he or she can experience reality by pretending and thus train for real life. In the light of these premises, playful activity, whether free or structured, solitary or in a group, leads the child above all to learn knowledge, skills, and behaviour in formal and informal environments: at home, in the street, in the gym, at school, anywhere. This contribution aims to emphasize the importance of play didactics in the primary school segment, to analyze the functions of play for educational purposes, and to show, through the best practices experienced by students of Primary Education, how play didactics are fundamental in building life skills.

x The text presents the results regarding the play- or game-based historical learning processes of primary school children in the binational Italian-German research project “Education and Objects. Historical learning processes of primary school children in museum collections.” In the project, funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG), groups of Italian and German school children between the ages of eight to eleven years had performative and playful experiences with selected collection objects or their respective replicas in “contact zones” (Clifford, 1997; Wagner, 2010). These interactions with collection objects can be considered anthropologically as “play” – as an individual form of playing – or as a “game” – a social form of playing (see Schiller, 1795/1946; Mead, 1967; Huizinga, 1938/2006; Gebauer & Wulf, 1998). On the basis of ethnographic participant observation (Breidenstein et al., 2013) and ethnographic videography (Friebertshäuser, 2012) children’s approaches to and interactions with collection objects are reconstructed from a didactic as well as cultural studies perspective on performativity and material culture. The extensive video footage from Italy and Germany was coded and interpreted according to Corbin and Strauss’ Grounded Theory Methodology (1996). The video data shows that children establish various connections from the present to the past, but also to the future through playful interactions. These can be seen as a preconditions for learning about history and indicate didactic potentials for child-centred, playful historical learning processes in primary schools.

x This article focuses on the writing processes of primary school children in the context of two different writing projects, in which typewriters, tablets and pens were used as writing tools. The children’s written work was collected and the writing situations of 32 children were documented on video. In this article, we explore the research question of what potentials arise from playing with pens, typewriters and tablets for learning how to write texts. We draw on three theoretical concepts: the phenomenological understanding of writing as a corporeal activity (Herrmann,2024a), the appeal of things (Stieve, 2010) and the qualitative dimension of play that lends passion and liveliness to activities (Huizinga, 1938/2017). In terms of research methodology, we are guided by key incident analysis (Kroon & Sturm, 2007) as well as procedures from phenomenological vignete research (Schrat et al., 2012), which we apply to the description of video data. Using key incidents, we show how learning takes place in the interplay between tools, people, and writing, and what potential arises from a play-tolerant or play-oriented didactic perspective for text writing in primary schools.

x For children, play is the preferred way of exploring and understanding the world. However, while educational games are often used to foster literacy skills and are well-established in the field of child literacy, the role of play in literacy education is often underestimated. In this regard, Literacy Centres offer children an opportunity to explore literacy in a playful manner.

x This study explores the perceptions, uses, and consumption of video games among children and young people, based on a questionnaire that collected 140 responses. Utilizing a conceptual framework that integrates theories of media learning and the influence of digital media on children’s development and learning, the data analysis reveals significant trends in young children’s gaming habits, motivations, and opinions. The findings indicate a wide range of behaviours and attitudes, with notable age and gender differences. Specifically, the study demonstrates how video games are used differently across age group and genders, with important implications for young people’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. The analyses show that while some children use video games as tools for socialization and learning, others view them primarily as forms of entertainment or escapism. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the crucial role that video games can play in the development of children and young people. In this context, foundations are offered for developing educational strategies that utilize video games as effective tools for positive learning and development.

x Play as an anthropological constant of human beings is closely linked to children’s acquisition of language and literature, in which playing with language and with possible worlds is of central importance (Andresen, 2013; Bruner 1986). Wordless picturebooks can be used in all languages and encourage language play and imaginative play in particular. In the context of primary education, shared reception situations in classroom interactions offer opportunities for the playful appropriation of stories. This article focuses on picturebook discussions from the study IMAGO. Picturebooks – Multilingual, Rhyming and Wordless – In Kindergartens and Primary Schools in South Tyrol (Hoffmann, 2024a; 2024b) about the wordless picturebook Field Trip to the Moon (Hare, 2019b). It shows how wordless picturebooks are playfully appropriated in dialogic reception situations in Italian- and German-speaking primary schools in the multilingual province of South Tyrol. By analysing transcribed key incidents,this contribution investigates how wordless picturebooks invite children to engage in language play and imaginative play, and which forms of play can be reconstructed in the picturebook discussions. It is shown that even with different didactic approaches, common patterns of play can be found across languages, which highlight the diverse opportunities and ways of playing with language and possible worlds.

x Play as an anthropological constant of human beings is closely linked to children’s acquisition of language and literature, in which playing with language and with possible worlds is of central importance (Andresen, 2013; Bruner 1986). Wordless picturebooks can be used in all languages and encourage language play and imaginative play in particular. In the context of primary education, shared reception situations in classroom interactions offer opportunities for the playful appropriation of stories. This article focuses on picturebook discussions from the study IMAGO. Picturebooks – Multilingual, Rhyming and Wordless – In Kindergartens and Primary Schools in South Tyrol (Hoffmann, 2024a; 2024b) about the wordless picturebook Field Trip to the Moon (Hare, 2019b). It shows how wordless picturebooks are playfully appropriated in dialogic reception situations in Italian- and German-speaking primary schools in the multilingual province of South Tyrol. By analysing transcribed key incidents,this contribution investigates how wordless picturebooks invite children to engage in language play and imaginative play, and which forms of play can be reconstructed in the picturebook discussions. It is shown that even with different didactic approaches, common patterns of play can be found across languages, which highlight the diverse opportunities and ways of playing with language and possible worlds.

x Building on years of experimentation across diverse educational settings, this initiative showcases a professional development experience for educators focused on the use of Kamishibai − a Japanese storytelling art meaning “paper theater”. Held in Bressanone in October 2023 in collaboration with the MultiLab, a physical space and an opportunity for project co-planning of the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, the programme delved into the cultural and philosophical roots of this ancient art form, highlighting its rich pedagogical and didactic potential. The training emphasized how Kamishibai fosters a holistic educationalprocess that nurtures personal and interpersonal awareness while enhancing relational, communicative, and creative abilities. Kamishibai provides a unique framework for exploring emotional literacy by engaging the body and senses. It opens an aesthetic space for self-expression through the synergy of multiple languages. Beyond serving as a teaching tool, Kamishibai becomes a dynamic space for imagination, expression, sharing, and action − a realm for playing with space and time dimensions through diverse perspectives, unlocking meaning through exploration and creativity. The training experience is presented through both theoretical insights and practical reflections, supported by documentation and testimonials from participants. Central themes that emerged during the process will be examined,emphasizing the transformative role of storytelling with Kamishibai.

x This study challenges the conventional separation of play, education, and narration, positing that play and learning are inherently interconnected. While critics of a reductive interpretation of gamification argue that superficial applications of game mechanics (e.g., points, levels, leaderboards) reduce education to manipulation, this research asks whether play and learning can be promoted through eudaimonic design, an approach that fosters the experience of autonomy, competence, and connection. Drawing from narrative thinking as a foundational cognitive ability as well as constructivist frameworks, this paper explores under what circumstances digital storytelling among primary school children facilitates meaningful engagement. Using two case studies, which both involve the development and classroom application of a digital storytelling tool, the research illustrates how guided narrative play can promote creativity, personal identification, and collaboration among primary school children. The findings highlight key design strategies that support motivating, playful learning experiences and suggest potential starting points for didactic approaches that engage students more deeply.

x During the entire school year 2021–2022, two classes of the Manzoni Institute in Reggio Emilia, Italy, were taught in the town’s Civic Museums as part of an experiment with new teaching and learning strategies. After returning to the school environment, the teachers involved reflected on how to support the playful methodologies that they had explored. From this perspective, the potential richness of the Palazzo Franchetti’s school garden, home of Baron Raimondo Franchetti, who donated his collection of African fauna to the city’s museums, emerged as a starting point for a project on outdoor education and citizen science. After the exploration of this ancient courtyard, the project extended to the city’s public gardens and even into the woods in the nearby Appennine Mountains using storytelling and play to observe, collect data and samples, and catalogue findings. The project was structured around four themes linked by playful approaches and creativity: in-depth examination of citizen science aspects related to local flora, particularly tardigrades (in collaboration with the PNRR, the National Recovery and Resilience Plan of Unimore, National Biodiversity Future Center); focus on the cultural heritage of the school (the courtyard of Palazzo Franchetti) and the public city gardens; development of real or fictional stories about the historic trees in the school courtyard and public park; and the creation of musical pieces and narratives, using rhythms created with natural materials, inspired by external explorations. The common thread of the project was a dimension of creativity, which found its highest expressions in discovery-based learning and playful-expressive approaches.

x The ways in which children engage in play, the skills they acquire, the dynamics they navigate, and the relationships they form offer valuable insights into their future development as adults. It is precisely because of this powerful, yet often underestimated, role of play in shaping their growth that children’s playful activities must be carefully observed, studied, and guided by the adults responsible for their care. By actively accompanying them on their developmental journey, educators and caregivers can better support the formative processes that influence children’s social, emotional, and cognitive growth. We aim to offer methodological and practical guidelines directed at countering the emergence of stereotypes during the elementary school years. By engaging in collective play and deconstructing these limiting mechanisms, children can explore and identify alternative pathways that enhance their imagination and creativity. Through play, a space is created where diverse perspectives are embraced, allowing for the broadening of children’s understanding and the development of more inclusive attitudes. The heuristic value of mistakes made collectively by children and teachers enables learning through play without the fear of failure or feelings of inadequacy. This process not only leads to unexpected and challenging outcomes but also encourages individuals to push their boundaries while sharing their discoveries with others.

x This paper explores the pedagogical value of play in all-day education contexts. Playfulness makes it possible to go beyond transmissive methods, encouraging student agency, creativity, experiential and collaborative learning, and the strengthening of relationships. In all-day education contexts, where school time is also an educational variable, play offers opportunities for interdisciplinarity and rethinking traditional lesson structures. After having structured a theoretical framework that interweaves play, playfulness and all-day education, a qualitative study conducted in northern Italy during the 2022/2023 school year is presented. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with seven primary school teachers working in all-day education class-rooms. The thematic analysis of the collected data revealed three topics: (1) ideas on all-day education; (2) play as a marginal and “disorganised” experience; (3) play as a primarily pedagogical moment. There is a general loss of pedagogical meaning in all-day education, with play often seen as a filler between unstructured moments; only in a few cases is it recognised as pedagogically valuable.

x This study examines the pedagogical dynamics of managing divergence and error in technology-enhanced classrooms, focusing on a simulation conducted with 360 Primary Education students over four years. The case of Pierino and his off-topic digital contribution (“Forza Juve!”) serves as a springboard for exploring teacher responses to disruptions. The thematic analysis of student reflections reveals six clusters of action, highlighting the potential of humour, playfulness, and gamification in re-framing error as a shared pedagogical resource. By balancing relational engagement and creative responsiveness, pursuing a strong drive for inclusion, fostering students’ comfort and well-being, and challenging them toward growth, self-awareness, self-efficacy and confidence, teachers can transform disruptions into opportunities for collaboration and meaning-making. This study emphasizes the constructed and contextual nature of error and its management, situating it within adaptive, human-centered practices that transcend prescriptive uses of digital tools. Reflecting on networked classroom interactions, it advocates for participatory approaches that foster emotional safety, curiosity, and imaginative exploration, aligning with broader goals of teacher education and reflective praxis

x This study discusses the opportunity to integrate tinkering, a constructionist practice, into formal education, highlighting its potential and challenges. We propose a model through which teachers can blend the open exploratory nature of tinkering with structured learning in primary school classrooms, focusing on Physics Education. Despite pandemic-induced limitations, feedback from 20 teachers and analysis of fishbowl protocols revealed the positive impact of tinkering on classroom dynamics, teacher engagement, and student access to knowledge. Our findings indicated that tinkering can surface relevant scientific questions. Nevertheless, teachers feel unprepared to tackle the in the classroom. This evidence will guide our future co-designs to enhance learning experiences and address the complexities of incorporating tinkering into formal education.